General Bardic Studies 1
I think it is worthwhile to reserve a portion of this essay for the discussion of the role of the Indo-European poet before narrowing my attention to a specific culture.
In How to Kill a Dragon Calvert Watkins states that, “The function of the Indo-European poet was to be the custodian and the transmitter of [Indo-European] tradition” (Watkins 68). According to Enrico Campanile the poet, who was responsible for remembering and transmitting the most important aspects of culture, enjoyed an elevated position in society, adding that “his traffic with Muses was neither particularly frequent nor particularly necessary. For this kind of poetry one could prepare oneself only by years of study.” The poet was expected to know, to remember the lengthy genealogies and spells, the tales of heroes and the totality of the
mythology. These were the elements that defined the culture and the poet was the guardian of that culture. It was understood that “the spoken word could produce a physical effect on the world, but only if properly formulated by the poet” (Calvert 70).
The Proto-Indo-European word referring to the function of the poets was *mnah, derived from *men meaning ‘mental force.’ This speaks to the role of the poet as One Who Remembers. Linguistic anthropologists have drawn strong parallels between the roles of priest and poet. A chant, invocation, or poem of praise is as integral to religious observance as the other paraphernalia. This lofty role is evident as the poet was the best-paid of the professionals in Indo-European society (Calvert 70).
Poets were employed Patrons. The poet provided poems of praise and would compose eulogies at the Patrons death. These poems and eulogies gave the Patron a form of “imperishable fame.” In return the Patron not just bestowed, but heaped wealth upon the poet. This *ghosti based relationship was a hallmark of Indo-European society.
This same relationship of reciprocity existed between poets and the gods. The hymn of praise is gifted to the gods who, in turn, should now return a gift to the poet, preferably the asked-for boon (fertility, wealth, health, etc.). Often the Parton would ask for the praise-poem from the poet and the returned divine gifts would be visited upon the Patron. Many of the hymns from the Rig Veda were these types of commissioned works.
In 1987 Campanile wrote the following about the Early Irish poets,
What we term Indo-European poetry was rather a society’s sum of
knowledge, which was orally transmitted. . . The main thing was to preserve and
increase cultural elements which presented something essential to the
well-being, collectivity, and stability of the society. We are speaking of
the magic spells which heal the sick, the legal formulas which settle disputes,
the prayers which extort worldly goods from the gods, the genealogies which give
to people consciousness of their past and pride in it, eulogies which legitimize
rulers by the celebrations of their greatness.
We know that the Irish poets belonged to a hereditary class. Uraicecht na Riar 7 says, “Question, when is a family a family of poets? Not difficult; their father is a poet and their grandfather” (Ceist, cuin as cland filed in chland? Ni hansae, fili a nathair a senathair). The ideal qualifications for a poet were being descended from poets, having an innate talent, and lengthy study. While one could become quite a well-accomplished poet with study and talent, without the three generations of poets coming before, one could not aspire to the rank of ollan ‘supreme.’ The true poet was both born and made as Bergin phrased it in his 1912 Bardic Poetry lecture.
Poets were viewed in some way as craftsmen. The Old Irish word cerd meant both ‘poetry’ and ‘craft’ and the same word exists in Welsh as cerdd. However the Greek cognate of cerd is translated as ‘profit’ or ‘gain.’
Much of our understanding on the role of the poet, or bard (from the Gaelic bard) is based on the well documented positions of Old Irish poets.
2.
Genres: Describe four "genres" of bardic arts, at least one of which must be poetry. For each genre, compare and contrast its appearance and/or use in two single
(preferably ancient) Indo-European cultures. The two cultures need not be the same for all four genres. (300 words each)
This must be a trick question; strictly speaking there *are* only four genres. The concept of genres originated in Ancient Greece. There were primarily two genres; Poetry and Prose. Historic and philosophical works were composed in prose while all fictional works were composed in verse. Poetry was then divided into three genres; lyric, epic, and dramatic. Each genre had specific structure and rules for composition encompassing meter and dialect (i.e.: Ionic, Attic, Doric, Aeolic).
Prose:
Prior to about the fourth century BCE, information of any importance in Greece was communicated via verse. It was not until the beginning of the Classical period that compositions lacking metric structure came to the fore (Graff, 304). It necessarily follows that poetry must have preceded prose as the latter style is defined by its difference from verse. A good argument could be made for Gorgias being the first true artistic prose rhetorician. The father of nihilism and one of the first and leading
sophists, Gorgias was known for his developments of a unique speaking style. Aristotle claimed that Gorgias imitated poetry as he developed his artistic prose style. However, Aristotle was firmly against this type of intentional dressing up of prose saying that though Gorgian manner could impress the uneducated, it was no fit style for speech. This sentiment is echoed in the writing of Isocrates, himself a student of Gorgias, when he explained that poets had access to all kinds of embellishments’ (kosmoi) which were considered out of bounds to the writer of prose. Prose was expected to use only language common in the state (no incorporation of foreign words or concepts) and to refrain from flights of fancy (or even metaphors), expounding upon ideas as close as possible to “actual facts.” Aristotle and Isocrates
agree that the austere diction and subjects available in prose force strength of thought a lack of which, in poetry, can be hidden behind flowery foreign phrases, decadent metrics, and involved imagery (Graff, 310).
Roman society also boasted forms of prose. In Roman culture prose was the genre used in composing histories and informational pieces. Perhaps the best-known prose author was Cato the Elder. His work On Agriculture is among the best-known prose pieces of Ancient Rome, it is also the only piece of Cato’s writing that remains complete and intact. He is also well-known for his history of Italy. Cato is credited as being the first to commit to writing his political speeches.
There is significantly less thought and writing about the forms of writing in Roman culture than in Greek. The Greeks were very attentive to style and the demands of individual genres. Prose was emphatically not poetry. Roman culture would appear to have put far less emphasis on the form of prose and focused more on the content.
Lyric Poetry:
Greek lyric poetry, which found strong footing around 7 BCE, speaks to the emotions of the audience as opposed to the intellect (Paul, 466). In Ancient Greece, “lyric” referred specifically to poetry that was accompanied by an instrument, usually the lyre. This genre is also sometimes called melic poetry from the Greek word melos meaning ‘song.’ These poems were intended for both public and private performances and compared to the other genres of Greek poetry, were relatively short. Greek
lyric poetry was often what is known as ‘occasional poetry,’ by which is meant poetry composed for specific events; deaths (eulogies), sports victories, weddings, or (my personal favorite) poems to enhance a symposium, or drinking party. These poems also include the category of love poem--poems that praise or aim to seduce, and in some cases even to scorn a former lover. This last purpose can be easily confused with invective poetry used to attach one’s personal enemies (the line here with satire is fairly blurry).
Today we are aware of only nine Greek lyric poets. Though there were likely more who were celebrated in their day, much work has been lost to time. These nine were: Bacchylides, Alcaeus, Alcman, Anacreon, Ibycus, Pindar, Sappho, Simonides, and Stesichorus.
In comparison, we have today only works from two Roman lyric poets; Catullus and Horace. Catullus was part of a group of poets who followed their teacher and leader, Callimachus, and were known as the New Poets (neoteroi). They eschewed the epic poetic genre. Their work tended to be excessively stylized and rather brief. Catullus also wrote elegiac couplet, but these are specifically not included in the lyric genre. Both Catullus and Horace (also known for his odes) were heavily influenced by Greek lyric poetry, the most significant difference being that Roman lyric poetry did not rely on musical accompaniment as it was primarily read and recited.
In both Roman and Greek lyric genres there were certain meters which were considered appropriate. These were: iambic (unstressed-stressed), trochaic (stressed-unstressed), pyrrhic (unstressed-unstressed), spondaic (stressed-stressed), anapestic (unstressed-unstressed-stressed), and dactylic (stressed-unstressed-unstressed).
Epic Poetry:
The earliest epic poems belonged to the oral tradition. These poems were recited, chanted, or sung before audiences recounting lengthy tales of heroic deeds, mythic themes, and, sometimes, quite serious topics. It is generally agreed that the Homeric epics were transcriptions of oral pieces. As such, these poems used a technique of recounting many separate events which were linked to a central character; the epic hero. The hero is engaged in some sort of transformational journey and must
overcome obstacles, defeat formidable adversaries, often descend into the Underworld, and weather divine interference.
Epic poems share several features. Typically an epic will begin in the middle of the action using various techniques to backfill the narrative. They tend toward vast settings, spanning nations, continents, even worlds and spiritual realms. These poems are heavy-handed with kenning and epithets, as one might expect from a poetic style originating in recitation. It is common for epics to include long lists and genealogies which place the characters in reference to one another but also could have
served to connect the story and characters to the audience. Epics nearly uniformly feature divine intervention in the affairs of the world in general and the hero in particular (Holman & Thrall).
Let us look at Greek epic poetry, focusing on Homer’s Iliad. It begins, in true epic style, set at the end of the Trojan War. Using various devices of memory and flashback as well as prophesy the poem tells the story of the entirety of the war. Nevertheless, the poem begins, in media res, ‘in the middle of things.’ In Book 2 we find the detailed lists, known as ‘epic catalogs,’ of the histories of every military contingent of each army. There is rampant interference from the gods throughout the tale from plagues sent by Apollo, to misleading dreams sent by Zeus, the rescue of Paris by Aphrodite, and gods joining in the fray directly! Our epic hero in this case is Achilles. Over the course of the war he engages in duels and one-on-one combats as well as group melee violence. He is pitted in his anger against the maneuvers of King Agamemnon. His is a journey of sorts which ends in his death.
Let us now look at Beowulf, the most important and possibly oldest work in Old English. The action in the poem covers numerous countries, and, like the Iliad, begins ‘in the middle of things.’ The central hero is Beowulf, of the Geats, who comes to the aid of a Danish King whose hall is beset by a man-eating monster. Unlike the Greek
epics, we see little divine interference in the epic of Beowulf. The action tends to be furthered by men and monsters, not by gods. And there are certainly fearsome monsters to defeat; Grendel, his mother, and eventually, a dragon. Where Achilles is motivated by wrath, Beowulf is motivated by bravery and the hunger for glorious deeds (also an aspect of Greek epics, but not the prime motivating factor of Achilles). The trials through which Beowulf passes make him fit for the kingship of his own people and his tale, like Achilles’, ends in his death from wounds received in battle.
Dramatic Poetry:
In Ancient Greece, dramatic poetry was subdivided into three genres; tragic, comedic, and the Satyr play (of which there is only one surviving example, Cyclops by Euripides). Developing predominantly in Athens, the correct dialect for composition was Attic (verses in iambic trimeter). Both tragic and comedic plays were born from aspects of Dionysian rituals and ceremonies. It was considered an act of piety for citizens to fund and attend performances. The dramatists most well-known today are the tragedians: Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus; and the comedian Aristophanes.
Ancient India also had an original dramatic tradition. The plays featured religious themes, and the long form play all opened and closed in prayer. Like Greek drama, plays were divided into comedy and tragedy. Unlike Greek dramatics, all Indian plays, even tragedies, were expected to have a happy ending. The plays were written predominantly in prose, though important or impassioned passages were written in verse (usually employing a four-line stanza). Long descriptive passages and moral
musings were interspersed with plot-driven scenes. These descriptive passages were spoken by one of the main characters, though it was not assumed that the reflections were necessarily those of the character being portrayed. These scenes were always spoken in Sanskrit, even after the time of that being the common language of India.
While Greek dramatists received credit for their work, and were celebrated for it, Indian dramas were generally attributed to the ruler under whose rule or by whose patronage the author lived. Bhasa is the best known of early Indian dramatists, sometimes he is referred to as the Father of Indian drama.
Both Greek and Indian dramas heavily feature involvement from gods and supernatural beings. Indian drama shies away from extreme emotions or the more human activities (scratching, sleeping, eating, etc.) while Greek drama included such actions (in fact such human necessity could feature prominently in Greek comedy).
3.
Forms/styles: Describe four forms or styles of bardic arts in either ancient or modern times or a combination of each. Include examples of each form. At least one such
description should be for a poetic form; the remainder can be for any bardic form or style. (100 words each [examples not to be included in word count])
The art of losing isn’t hard to master;
so many things seem filled with the intent
to be lost that their loss is no disaster.
Lose something every day. Accept the fluster
of lost door keys, the hour badly spent.
The art of losing isn’t hard to master.
Then practice losing farther, losing faster:
places, and names, and where it was you meant
to travel. None of these will bring disaster.
I lost my mother’s watch. And look! my last, or
next-to-last, of three loved houses went.
The art of losing isn’t hard to master.
I lost two cities, lovely ones. And, vaster,
some realms I owned, two rivers, a continent.
I miss them, but it wasn’t a disaster.
—Even losing you (the joking voice, a gesture
I love) I shan’t have lied. It’s evident
the art of losing’s not too hard to master
though it may look like (Write it!) like disaster.
Bishop’s “One Art” is my favorite villanelle. A Villanelle is a 19 line poem; five tercets and one quatrain with two repeating rhymes and two refrains. Bishop treats the form a bit loosely and permits herself to repeating simply the final words instead of the complete phrase as a refrain. A more traditional Villanelle would be Dylan Thomas’ much-vaunted “Do not go gentle into that good night.”
Originally the French term “villanelle” denoted simply a poem with a rustic theme over time the structure became more rigid. Despite its French name, the form was not a popular one amongst French poets. Increasingly though, the style found favor with English poets.
Admit impediments. Love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove:
O no; it is an ever-fixed mark,
That looks on tempests, and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wandering bark,
Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken.
Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle's compass come;
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me proved,
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.
The English sonnet, often referred to a Shakespearean sonnet, consists of three quatrains, alternately rhymed, and a rhymed couplet. The rhyme scheme is simply abab, cdcd, efef, gg. Each quatrain should focus and expand upon a single thought. The couplet offers amplification or a refutation of the previous quatrains. Should the couplet offer a refutation, it is known as the ‘turn’ or, in Petrarchan Sonnets, as la volta (though in the Petrarchan style the turn happens between lines 8 and 9).
There are several styles of Sonnet in addition to the English. There is the Italian Petrarchan which has already been mentioned and features only two stanzas; an octave followed by a sextet. There is also the Spenserian sonnet (popularized by Edmund Spenser) which features three quatrains and a couple like the English form but the quatrains are linked through the rhyme-scheme (abab bcbc cdcd ee). The Miltonic Sonnet is based on the Italian style but allows the turn to move through the octave and sextet.
As it fell on a light holyday,
As many more does in the yeere,
Little Mousgrove would to the church and pray,
To see the faire ladyes there.
Gallants there were of good degree,
For beauty exceeding faire,
Most wondrous lovely to the eie,
That did to that church repaire.
A ballad is a simple narrative poem, generally intended to be sung. Folk ballads undergo all sorts of narrative and phrasing changes as they are repeated and repeated. The earliest ballads recount tales from aged romances or even from legends. Rhyming is often near or slant and phrasing tends to be simple and repetitive as ballads are meant to be easily remembered and shared.
Francis James Child, a 19th century scholar, spent years collecting folk ballads in England, Scotland, and the United States. His research identified numerous geographical and generational variants of the same songs. Many traditional Scottish ballads were discovered preserved in the Appalachian Mountains.
From Brooklyn, over the Brooklyn Bridge, on this fine morning,
please come flying.
In a cloud of fiery pale chemicals,
please come flying,
to the rapid rolling of thousands of small blue drums
descending out of the mackerel sky
over the glittering grandstand of harbor-water,
please come flying.
The epistle is a letter written in verse. Epistles are not required to adhere to any fixed forms and range from friendly nods to scathing satire. Much of the New Testament is epistolary; books such as Corinthians and Ephesians are simply collections of letters from Christians to entire communities. In formal poetry, some of the most biting retorts and responses to poor reviews have come in the form of the epistle. One of my favorites is Pope’s Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot in which the author responds
to attacks not just of his poetry but also his, “person, morals, and family.” Pope then takes the opportunity to lay into all his recent detractor and plagiarists.
The above excerpt from Bishop is, in my opinion, a lovely poem of invitation to the poet’s friend (and possible lover), Marianne Moore, herself a poet.
4.
Bardic Figure: Describe the life, fame and general techniques of a historical or mythical bardic figure in a (preferably ancient) Indo-European culture. (minimum
300 words)
Cœdmon is widely considered to be the first known Old English poet. At least, he is one of the first about who we know anything. His story the sounds mythic, though it is known that he did live and did serve as a monk in Whitby Abbey under St. Hilda. Cœdmon’s story was recorded by Bede. It is part of the education of any literature student to learn about this poet and study his hymn through translation and criticism. I will sum it up.
Cœdmon worked with the animals in the Abbey. One evening the monks were singing and sharing poems and playing the harp together. Cœdmon, unable to join in that sort of merriment being generally uneducated, left to go sleep in the stables. That night he dreamt. In his dream he was approached by a man who asked him to sing. Cœdmon responded that he did not know how. The man asked again, he asked Cœdmon to sing of creation. Miraculously Cœdmon found himself able to do so.
Upon awakening, he remembered all that he had sung. He went before the Abbess and sang his song for her. She was impressed and called other monks in to hear his song. They gave Cœdmon a holy topic upon which to meditate during the night and asked him to come to them the following day and sing again. He complied and his second song so pleased the Abbess that he was immediately invited to take orders, which he did. His ability was such that for the rest of his life he was able to meditate upon a piece of scripture or sacred topic through a night and in the morning would have a hymn or song praise.
Cœdmon’s first hymn is all that remains today of his works.
What strikes me is that Cœdmon’s process for composing is remarkably similar to the process of Irish Bards employed in bardic schools as described by Watkins.
5.
Role of the Modern Bard: Describe the role of the modern-day, Neopagan bard in the context of ritual (100 words), Ar nDraiocht Fein (100 words) and the greater
Neopagan community (100 words).
Role of the Modern Bard in Ritual:
The Bard is that individual who will make the Prayers to/for Inspiration on behalf of the assembled folk at the opening of ritual and will lead the songs and chants used throughout the rite. In public work it is a luxury to have a group of celebrants who all know the same music, a rare luxury indeed. The Bard can lead a dry-run of the poetic and musical sections of ritual during the pre-ritual briefing and then be a strong voice steering the group in the rite itself. In some cases, the Bard may simply sing/chant alone on behalf of the gathered folk. It is also not uncommon for the Bard to give recitations or re-tellings of lore appropriate to rite.
Role of the Modern Bard in ADF:
“The ADF Bardic Guild exists to promote excellence in the word: spoken, written, and sung.” That is how the Bards self-define their role in ADF. Clearly, the Bards of ADF are expected to fulfill the above outlined roles in ADF rituals. ADF looks to its Bards to compose chants and songs and to teach them to the membership. The recent establishment of the Wellspring Bardic Chair (begun 3 years ago I believe, in 2011), has encouraged Bards and the bardically inclined to push their performance skills in
poetry, storytelling, and song. Most ADF gatherings have a Bardic Circle and it largely falls to the Bards to lead and provide the bulk of the material at such activities.
A function of ADF bards that I would like to see more of is the
composition of original works. For example, Kari “Spiral Dancer” Barber
has composed a few songs reflecting pagan themes and values as have Missy
Burchfield and Emerald. These works are truly inspired and inspiring.
Often Pagans will filk-up an existing song, give it a good pagan-washing.
While this is fine and good, original works are far more powerful and are
organically ours.
Role of the Modern Bard in the Greater Neopagan Community:
It strikes me that the role of the bard in the greater Neopagan community is not unlike the role of the bard within ADF. And why would it be? I will qualify that by saying that I have not attended many rituals outside of ADF that have featured any identifiable person acting in a Bardic capacity. In my experiences, I have not seen Bards leading songs or chants in Wiccan or Asatru rituals the way I have in ADF. However, as ADF has been my religious community for nearly two decades. Therefore, my
experiences with the greater Neopagan community have been a bit colored.
It should be noted however, that the Wiccans have some really great songs. I recently was in ritual where we used Ann Hill's Wassail Song to honor the Tree. It was beautiful. The development and teaching of pagan chants and songs transcends any organization. When a group of Pagans meet around a festival fire circle and can all belt out “We All Come from the Goddess” together, we have our community bards to thank for that moment of praise and community.
6.
Practical Bardry: Compose or find a bardic piece (of any appropriate genre or form) suitable for ADF ritual. Describe the process you used for discovery and/or
composition of the piece and how it was (or could be) used effectively in a ritual context. (100 words [text of piece not to be included in word count])
Prayer for Inspiration to Kvasir
In one voice call the folk to Kvasir.
With God-water and poetry of man
was wrought a peace not worn by years
Mead-bleeder hear me!
Word-weaver hear me!
Kvasir, come be the Fire in our Heads!
I wrote the above piece. It is a not particularly skillful attempt to echo Old English poetic forms. The process I used to compose the verses was simple. I lit a candle in honor of Kvasir and asked for assistance in composing a prayer to him. For a time I sat in quiet contemplation and allowed the individual words to float into my consciousness. I thought of what elements of his lore seemed the most relevant to the purpose of the prayer. It began with the kennings, “mead-bleeder,” and
“word-weaver.” Then I decided I also needed a kenning for “spit,” and came up with “God-water.” The phonetic echoing wrote itself. I obviously paid little attention to how many accents were in each section of line. Were I to re-write it, I would adhere more closely to the stricture of OE poetry.
I use this piece as a prayer for Bardic Inspiration in Norse rites, as indicated by the title. I find it a useful and effective prayer, even if it does steal a line from Welsh lore.
References:
"BEDE'S STORY OF CAEDMON." N.p., 30 Mar. 2005. Web. 21 May 2014. <http://www.heorot.dk/bede-caedmon.html>.
Bellinger, Martha Fletcher. "The Drama of India." A Short History of the Drama. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, 1927. Print.
Bishop, Elizabeth. The Complete Poems: 1927-1979. New York, NY: The Noonday Press, 1992. Print.
Campanile, Enrico. "Indogermanische Dichtrsprache." Studien zum indogermanischen Worschatz, ed. by W. Meid. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenschaft, 1987. Print.
Deutsch, Babette. Poetry Handbook: A Dictionary of Terms, 4th ed. New York, NY: HarperPerennial, 1974.
Graff, Richard. "Prose versus Poetry in Early Greek Theories of Style." Rhetorics: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric Vol. 23: 303-335. Print.
Holman, C. Hugh, and William Flint Thrall. A Handbook to Literature, 3d ed. Indianapolis: Odyssey Press, 1972. Print.
Paul, Harry G. "The Teaching of Lyric Poetry." The English Journal vol. 1: 466-475
Watkins, Calvert. How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Print.
- Indo-European Culture: Discuss in general terms the bardic arts prevalent within a single (preferably ancient) Indo-European culture; explain how those bardic arts fit into that culture and religion. (300-600 words)
I think it is worthwhile to reserve a portion of this essay for the discussion of the role of the Indo-European poet before narrowing my attention to a specific culture.
In How to Kill a Dragon Calvert Watkins states that, “The function of the Indo-European poet was to be the custodian and the transmitter of [Indo-European] tradition” (Watkins 68). According to Enrico Campanile the poet, who was responsible for remembering and transmitting the most important aspects of culture, enjoyed an elevated position in society, adding that “his traffic with Muses was neither particularly frequent nor particularly necessary. For this kind of poetry one could prepare oneself only by years of study.” The poet was expected to know, to remember the lengthy genealogies and spells, the tales of heroes and the totality of the
mythology. These were the elements that defined the culture and the poet was the guardian of that culture. It was understood that “the spoken word could produce a physical effect on the world, but only if properly formulated by the poet” (Calvert 70).
The Proto-Indo-European word referring to the function of the poets was *mnah, derived from *men meaning ‘mental force.’ This speaks to the role of the poet as One Who Remembers. Linguistic anthropologists have drawn strong parallels between the roles of priest and poet. A chant, invocation, or poem of praise is as integral to religious observance as the other paraphernalia. This lofty role is evident as the poet was the best-paid of the professionals in Indo-European society (Calvert 70).
Poets were employed Patrons. The poet provided poems of praise and would compose eulogies at the Patrons death. These poems and eulogies gave the Patron a form of “imperishable fame.” In return the Patron not just bestowed, but heaped wealth upon the poet. This *ghosti based relationship was a hallmark of Indo-European society.
This same relationship of reciprocity existed between poets and the gods. The hymn of praise is gifted to the gods who, in turn, should now return a gift to the poet, preferably the asked-for boon (fertility, wealth, health, etc.). Often the Parton would ask for the praise-poem from the poet and the returned divine gifts would be visited upon the Patron. Many of the hymns from the Rig Veda were these types of commissioned works.
In 1987 Campanile wrote the following about the Early Irish poets,
What we term Indo-European poetry was rather a society’s sum of
knowledge, which was orally transmitted. . . The main thing was to preserve and
increase cultural elements which presented something essential to the
well-being, collectivity, and stability of the society. We are speaking of
the magic spells which heal the sick, the legal formulas which settle disputes,
the prayers which extort worldly goods from the gods, the genealogies which give
to people consciousness of their past and pride in it, eulogies which legitimize
rulers by the celebrations of their greatness.
We know that the Irish poets belonged to a hereditary class. Uraicecht na Riar 7 says, “Question, when is a family a family of poets? Not difficult; their father is a poet and their grandfather” (Ceist, cuin as cland filed in chland? Ni hansae, fili a nathair a senathair). The ideal qualifications for a poet were being descended from poets, having an innate talent, and lengthy study. While one could become quite a well-accomplished poet with study and talent, without the three generations of poets coming before, one could not aspire to the rank of ollan ‘supreme.’ The true poet was both born and made as Bergin phrased it in his 1912 Bardic Poetry lecture.
Poets were viewed in some way as craftsmen. The Old Irish word cerd meant both ‘poetry’ and ‘craft’ and the same word exists in Welsh as cerdd. However the Greek cognate of cerd is translated as ‘profit’ or ‘gain.’
Much of our understanding on the role of the poet, or bard (from the Gaelic bard) is based on the well documented positions of Old Irish poets.
2.
Genres: Describe four "genres" of bardic arts, at least one of which must be poetry. For each genre, compare and contrast its appearance and/or use in two single
(preferably ancient) Indo-European cultures. The two cultures need not be the same for all four genres. (300 words each)
This must be a trick question; strictly speaking there *are* only four genres. The concept of genres originated in Ancient Greece. There were primarily two genres; Poetry and Prose. Historic and philosophical works were composed in prose while all fictional works were composed in verse. Poetry was then divided into three genres; lyric, epic, and dramatic. Each genre had specific structure and rules for composition encompassing meter and dialect (i.e.: Ionic, Attic, Doric, Aeolic).
Prose:
Prior to about the fourth century BCE, information of any importance in Greece was communicated via verse. It was not until the beginning of the Classical period that compositions lacking metric structure came to the fore (Graff, 304). It necessarily follows that poetry must have preceded prose as the latter style is defined by its difference from verse. A good argument could be made for Gorgias being the first true artistic prose rhetorician. The father of nihilism and one of the first and leading
sophists, Gorgias was known for his developments of a unique speaking style. Aristotle claimed that Gorgias imitated poetry as he developed his artistic prose style. However, Aristotle was firmly against this type of intentional dressing up of prose saying that though Gorgian manner could impress the uneducated, it was no fit style for speech. This sentiment is echoed in the writing of Isocrates, himself a student of Gorgias, when he explained that poets had access to all kinds of embellishments’ (kosmoi) which were considered out of bounds to the writer of prose. Prose was expected to use only language common in the state (no incorporation of foreign words or concepts) and to refrain from flights of fancy (or even metaphors), expounding upon ideas as close as possible to “actual facts.” Aristotle and Isocrates
agree that the austere diction and subjects available in prose force strength of thought a lack of which, in poetry, can be hidden behind flowery foreign phrases, decadent metrics, and involved imagery (Graff, 310).
Roman society also boasted forms of prose. In Roman culture prose was the genre used in composing histories and informational pieces. Perhaps the best-known prose author was Cato the Elder. His work On Agriculture is among the best-known prose pieces of Ancient Rome, it is also the only piece of Cato’s writing that remains complete and intact. He is also well-known for his history of Italy. Cato is credited as being the first to commit to writing his political speeches.
There is significantly less thought and writing about the forms of writing in Roman culture than in Greek. The Greeks were very attentive to style and the demands of individual genres. Prose was emphatically not poetry. Roman culture would appear to have put far less emphasis on the form of prose and focused more on the content.
Lyric Poetry:
Greek lyric poetry, which found strong footing around 7 BCE, speaks to the emotions of the audience as opposed to the intellect (Paul, 466). In Ancient Greece, “lyric” referred specifically to poetry that was accompanied by an instrument, usually the lyre. This genre is also sometimes called melic poetry from the Greek word melos meaning ‘song.’ These poems were intended for both public and private performances and compared to the other genres of Greek poetry, were relatively short. Greek
lyric poetry was often what is known as ‘occasional poetry,’ by which is meant poetry composed for specific events; deaths (eulogies), sports victories, weddings, or (my personal favorite) poems to enhance a symposium, or drinking party. These poems also include the category of love poem--poems that praise or aim to seduce, and in some cases even to scorn a former lover. This last purpose can be easily confused with invective poetry used to attach one’s personal enemies (the line here with satire is fairly blurry).
Today we are aware of only nine Greek lyric poets. Though there were likely more who were celebrated in their day, much work has been lost to time. These nine were: Bacchylides, Alcaeus, Alcman, Anacreon, Ibycus, Pindar, Sappho, Simonides, and Stesichorus.
In comparison, we have today only works from two Roman lyric poets; Catullus and Horace. Catullus was part of a group of poets who followed their teacher and leader, Callimachus, and were known as the New Poets (neoteroi). They eschewed the epic poetic genre. Their work tended to be excessively stylized and rather brief. Catullus also wrote elegiac couplet, but these are specifically not included in the lyric genre. Both Catullus and Horace (also known for his odes) were heavily influenced by Greek lyric poetry, the most significant difference being that Roman lyric poetry did not rely on musical accompaniment as it was primarily read and recited.
In both Roman and Greek lyric genres there were certain meters which were considered appropriate. These were: iambic (unstressed-stressed), trochaic (stressed-unstressed), pyrrhic (unstressed-unstressed), spondaic (stressed-stressed), anapestic (unstressed-unstressed-stressed), and dactylic (stressed-unstressed-unstressed).
Epic Poetry:
The earliest epic poems belonged to the oral tradition. These poems were recited, chanted, or sung before audiences recounting lengthy tales of heroic deeds, mythic themes, and, sometimes, quite serious topics. It is generally agreed that the Homeric epics were transcriptions of oral pieces. As such, these poems used a technique of recounting many separate events which were linked to a central character; the epic hero. The hero is engaged in some sort of transformational journey and must
overcome obstacles, defeat formidable adversaries, often descend into the Underworld, and weather divine interference.
Epic poems share several features. Typically an epic will begin in the middle of the action using various techniques to backfill the narrative. They tend toward vast settings, spanning nations, continents, even worlds and spiritual realms. These poems are heavy-handed with kenning and epithets, as one might expect from a poetic style originating in recitation. It is common for epics to include long lists and genealogies which place the characters in reference to one another but also could have
served to connect the story and characters to the audience. Epics nearly uniformly feature divine intervention in the affairs of the world in general and the hero in particular (Holman & Thrall).
Let us look at Greek epic poetry, focusing on Homer’s Iliad. It begins, in true epic style, set at the end of the Trojan War. Using various devices of memory and flashback as well as prophesy the poem tells the story of the entirety of the war. Nevertheless, the poem begins, in media res, ‘in the middle of things.’ In Book 2 we find the detailed lists, known as ‘epic catalogs,’ of the histories of every military contingent of each army. There is rampant interference from the gods throughout the tale from plagues sent by Apollo, to misleading dreams sent by Zeus, the rescue of Paris by Aphrodite, and gods joining in the fray directly! Our epic hero in this case is Achilles. Over the course of the war he engages in duels and one-on-one combats as well as group melee violence. He is pitted in his anger against the maneuvers of King Agamemnon. His is a journey of sorts which ends in his death.
Let us now look at Beowulf, the most important and possibly oldest work in Old English. The action in the poem covers numerous countries, and, like the Iliad, begins ‘in the middle of things.’ The central hero is Beowulf, of the Geats, who comes to the aid of a Danish King whose hall is beset by a man-eating monster. Unlike the Greek
epics, we see little divine interference in the epic of Beowulf. The action tends to be furthered by men and monsters, not by gods. And there are certainly fearsome monsters to defeat; Grendel, his mother, and eventually, a dragon. Where Achilles is motivated by wrath, Beowulf is motivated by bravery and the hunger for glorious deeds (also an aspect of Greek epics, but not the prime motivating factor of Achilles). The trials through which Beowulf passes make him fit for the kingship of his own people and his tale, like Achilles’, ends in his death from wounds received in battle.
Dramatic Poetry:
In Ancient Greece, dramatic poetry was subdivided into three genres; tragic, comedic, and the Satyr play (of which there is only one surviving example, Cyclops by Euripides). Developing predominantly in Athens, the correct dialect for composition was Attic (verses in iambic trimeter). Both tragic and comedic plays were born from aspects of Dionysian rituals and ceremonies. It was considered an act of piety for citizens to fund and attend performances. The dramatists most well-known today are the tragedians: Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus; and the comedian Aristophanes.
Ancient India also had an original dramatic tradition. The plays featured religious themes, and the long form play all opened and closed in prayer. Like Greek drama, plays were divided into comedy and tragedy. Unlike Greek dramatics, all Indian plays, even tragedies, were expected to have a happy ending. The plays were written predominantly in prose, though important or impassioned passages were written in verse (usually employing a four-line stanza). Long descriptive passages and moral
musings were interspersed with plot-driven scenes. These descriptive passages were spoken by one of the main characters, though it was not assumed that the reflections were necessarily those of the character being portrayed. These scenes were always spoken in Sanskrit, even after the time of that being the common language of India.
While Greek dramatists received credit for their work, and were celebrated for it, Indian dramas were generally attributed to the ruler under whose rule or by whose patronage the author lived. Bhasa is the best known of early Indian dramatists, sometimes he is referred to as the Father of Indian drama.
Both Greek and Indian dramas heavily feature involvement from gods and supernatural beings. Indian drama shies away from extreme emotions or the more human activities (scratching, sleeping, eating, etc.) while Greek drama included such actions (in fact such human necessity could feature prominently in Greek comedy).
3.
Forms/styles: Describe four forms or styles of bardic arts in either ancient or modern times or a combination of each. Include examples of each form. At least one such
description should be for a poetic form; the remainder can be for any bardic form or style. (100 words each [examples not to be included in word count])
- Villanelle: “One Art” by Elizabeth Bishop
The art of losing isn’t hard to master;
so many things seem filled with the intent
to be lost that their loss is no disaster.
Lose something every day. Accept the fluster
of lost door keys, the hour badly spent.
The art of losing isn’t hard to master.
Then practice losing farther, losing faster:
places, and names, and where it was you meant
to travel. None of these will bring disaster.
I lost my mother’s watch. And look! my last, or
next-to-last, of three loved houses went.
The art of losing isn’t hard to master.
I lost two cities, lovely ones. And, vaster,
some realms I owned, two rivers, a continent.
I miss them, but it wasn’t a disaster.
—Even losing you (the joking voice, a gesture
I love) I shan’t have lied. It’s evident
the art of losing’s not too hard to master
though it may look like (Write it!) like disaster.
Bishop’s “One Art” is my favorite villanelle. A Villanelle is a 19 line poem; five tercets and one quatrain with two repeating rhymes and two refrains. Bishop treats the form a bit loosely and permits herself to repeating simply the final words instead of the complete phrase as a refrain. A more traditional Villanelle would be Dylan Thomas’ much-vaunted “Do not go gentle into that good night.”
Originally the French term “villanelle” denoted simply a poem with a rustic theme over time the structure became more rigid. Despite its French name, the form was not a popular one amongst French poets. Increasingly though, the style found favor with English poets.
- English Sonnet: “Sonnet 116” by William Shakespeare
Admit impediments. Love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove:
O no; it is an ever-fixed mark,
That looks on tempests, and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wandering bark,
Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken.
Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle's compass come;
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me proved,
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.
The English sonnet, often referred to a Shakespearean sonnet, consists of three quatrains, alternately rhymed, and a rhymed couplet. The rhyme scheme is simply abab, cdcd, efef, gg. Each quatrain should focus and expand upon a single thought. The couplet offers amplification or a refutation of the previous quatrains. Should the couplet offer a refutation, it is known as the ‘turn’ or, in Petrarchan Sonnets, as la volta (though in the Petrarchan style the turn happens between lines 8 and 9).
There are several styles of Sonnet in addition to the English. There is the Italian Petrarchan which has already been mentioned and features only two stanzas; an octave followed by a sextet. There is also the Spenserian sonnet (popularized by Edmund Spenser) which features three quatrains and a couple like the English form but the quatrains are linked through the rhyme-scheme (abab bcbc cdcd ee). The Miltonic Sonnet is based on the Italian style but allows the turn to move through the octave and sextet.
- Ballad: “Little Musgrave and Lady Barnard”
As it fell on a light holyday,
As many more does in the yeere,
Little Mousgrove would to the church and pray,
To see the faire ladyes there.
Gallants there were of good degree,
For beauty exceeding faire,
Most wondrous lovely to the eie,
That did to that church repaire.
A ballad is a simple narrative poem, generally intended to be sung. Folk ballads undergo all sorts of narrative and phrasing changes as they are repeated and repeated. The earliest ballads recount tales from aged romances or even from legends. Rhyming is often near or slant and phrasing tends to be simple and repetitive as ballads are meant to be easily remembered and shared.
Francis James Child, a 19th century scholar, spent years collecting folk ballads in England, Scotland, and the United States. His research identified numerous geographical and generational variants of the same songs. Many traditional Scottish ballads were discovered preserved in the Appalachian Mountains.
- Epistle: “Invitation to Miss Marianne Moore” by Elizabeth Bishop (excerpted)
From Brooklyn, over the Brooklyn Bridge, on this fine morning,
please come flying.
In a cloud of fiery pale chemicals,
please come flying,
to the rapid rolling of thousands of small blue drums
descending out of the mackerel sky
over the glittering grandstand of harbor-water,
please come flying.
The epistle is a letter written in verse. Epistles are not required to adhere to any fixed forms and range from friendly nods to scathing satire. Much of the New Testament is epistolary; books such as Corinthians and Ephesians are simply collections of letters from Christians to entire communities. In formal poetry, some of the most biting retorts and responses to poor reviews have come in the form of the epistle. One of my favorites is Pope’s Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot in which the author responds
to attacks not just of his poetry but also his, “person, morals, and family.” Pope then takes the opportunity to lay into all his recent detractor and plagiarists.
The above excerpt from Bishop is, in my opinion, a lovely poem of invitation to the poet’s friend (and possible lover), Marianne Moore, herself a poet.
4.
Bardic Figure: Describe the life, fame and general techniques of a historical or mythical bardic figure in a (preferably ancient) Indo-European culture. (minimum
300 words)
Cœdmon is widely considered to be the first known Old English poet. At least, he is one of the first about who we know anything. His story the sounds mythic, though it is known that he did live and did serve as a monk in Whitby Abbey under St. Hilda. Cœdmon’s story was recorded by Bede. It is part of the education of any literature student to learn about this poet and study his hymn through translation and criticism. I will sum it up.
Cœdmon worked with the animals in the Abbey. One evening the monks were singing and sharing poems and playing the harp together. Cœdmon, unable to join in that sort of merriment being generally uneducated, left to go sleep in the stables. That night he dreamt. In his dream he was approached by a man who asked him to sing. Cœdmon responded that he did not know how. The man asked again, he asked Cœdmon to sing of creation. Miraculously Cœdmon found himself able to do so.
Upon awakening, he remembered all that he had sung. He went before the Abbess and sang his song for her. She was impressed and called other monks in to hear his song. They gave Cœdmon a holy topic upon which to meditate during the night and asked him to come to them the following day and sing again. He complied and his second song so pleased the Abbess that he was immediately invited to take orders, which he did. His ability was such that for the rest of his life he was able to meditate upon a piece of scripture or sacred topic through a night and in the morning would have a hymn or song praise.
Cœdmon’s first hymn is all that remains today of his works.
What strikes me is that Cœdmon’s process for composing is remarkably similar to the process of Irish Bards employed in bardic schools as described by Watkins.
5.
Role of the Modern Bard: Describe the role of the modern-day, Neopagan bard in the context of ritual (100 words), Ar nDraiocht Fein (100 words) and the greater
Neopagan community (100 words).
Role of the Modern Bard in Ritual:
The Bard is that individual who will make the Prayers to/for Inspiration on behalf of the assembled folk at the opening of ritual and will lead the songs and chants used throughout the rite. In public work it is a luxury to have a group of celebrants who all know the same music, a rare luxury indeed. The Bard can lead a dry-run of the poetic and musical sections of ritual during the pre-ritual briefing and then be a strong voice steering the group in the rite itself. In some cases, the Bard may simply sing/chant alone on behalf of the gathered folk. It is also not uncommon for the Bard to give recitations or re-tellings of lore appropriate to rite.
Role of the Modern Bard in ADF:
“The ADF Bardic Guild exists to promote excellence in the word: spoken, written, and sung.” That is how the Bards self-define their role in ADF. Clearly, the Bards of ADF are expected to fulfill the above outlined roles in ADF rituals. ADF looks to its Bards to compose chants and songs and to teach them to the membership. The recent establishment of the Wellspring Bardic Chair (begun 3 years ago I believe, in 2011), has encouraged Bards and the bardically inclined to push their performance skills in
poetry, storytelling, and song. Most ADF gatherings have a Bardic Circle and it largely falls to the Bards to lead and provide the bulk of the material at such activities.
A function of ADF bards that I would like to see more of is the
composition of original works. For example, Kari “Spiral Dancer” Barber
has composed a few songs reflecting pagan themes and values as have Missy
Burchfield and Emerald. These works are truly inspired and inspiring.
Often Pagans will filk-up an existing song, give it a good pagan-washing.
While this is fine and good, original works are far more powerful and are
organically ours.
Role of the Modern Bard in the Greater Neopagan Community:
It strikes me that the role of the bard in the greater Neopagan community is not unlike the role of the bard within ADF. And why would it be? I will qualify that by saying that I have not attended many rituals outside of ADF that have featured any identifiable person acting in a Bardic capacity. In my experiences, I have not seen Bards leading songs or chants in Wiccan or Asatru rituals the way I have in ADF. However, as ADF has been my religious community for nearly two decades. Therefore, my
experiences with the greater Neopagan community have been a bit colored.
It should be noted however, that the Wiccans have some really great songs. I recently was in ritual where we used Ann Hill's Wassail Song to honor the Tree. It was beautiful. The development and teaching of pagan chants and songs transcends any organization. When a group of Pagans meet around a festival fire circle and can all belt out “We All Come from the Goddess” together, we have our community bards to thank for that moment of praise and community.
6.
Practical Bardry: Compose or find a bardic piece (of any appropriate genre or form) suitable for ADF ritual. Describe the process you used for discovery and/or
composition of the piece and how it was (or could be) used effectively in a ritual context. (100 words [text of piece not to be included in word count])
Prayer for Inspiration to Kvasir
In one voice call the folk to Kvasir.
With God-water and poetry of man
was wrought a peace not worn by years
Mead-bleeder hear me!
Word-weaver hear me!
Kvasir, come be the Fire in our Heads!
I wrote the above piece. It is a not particularly skillful attempt to echo Old English poetic forms. The process I used to compose the verses was simple. I lit a candle in honor of Kvasir and asked for assistance in composing a prayer to him. For a time I sat in quiet contemplation and allowed the individual words to float into my consciousness. I thought of what elements of his lore seemed the most relevant to the purpose of the prayer. It began with the kennings, “mead-bleeder,” and
“word-weaver.” Then I decided I also needed a kenning for “spit,” and came up with “God-water.” The phonetic echoing wrote itself. I obviously paid little attention to how many accents were in each section of line. Were I to re-write it, I would adhere more closely to the stricture of OE poetry.
I use this piece as a prayer for Bardic Inspiration in Norse rites, as indicated by the title. I find it a useful and effective prayer, even if it does steal a line from Welsh lore.
References:
"BEDE'S STORY OF CAEDMON." N.p., 30 Mar. 2005. Web. 21 May 2014. <http://www.heorot.dk/bede-caedmon.html>.
Bellinger, Martha Fletcher. "The Drama of India." A Short History of the Drama. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, 1927. Print.
Bishop, Elizabeth. The Complete Poems: 1927-1979. New York, NY: The Noonday Press, 1992. Print.
Campanile, Enrico. "Indogermanische Dichtrsprache." Studien zum indogermanischen Worschatz, ed. by W. Meid. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenschaft, 1987. Print.
Deutsch, Babette. Poetry Handbook: A Dictionary of Terms, 4th ed. New York, NY: HarperPerennial, 1974.
Graff, Richard. "Prose versus Poetry in Early Greek Theories of Style." Rhetorics: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric Vol. 23: 303-335. Print.
Holman, C. Hugh, and William Flint Thrall. A Handbook to Literature, 3d ed. Indianapolis: Odyssey Press, 1972. Print.
Paul, Harry G. "The Teaching of Lyric Poetry." The English Journal vol. 1: 466-475
Watkins, Calvert. How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Print.