CTP: Magic 1
Discuss
the importance of the action of the magico-religious function as it is seen
within the context of general Indo-European culture. (minimum 100
words)
This question could be interpreted as asking two different things. On one hand it may be referring to the first function of a Dumezilian tripartite societal
division. On the other hand it may be referring to the place in society and actions of Indo-European magic-workers. As I am not psychic nor a proficient seeress I cannot divine which answer would be most acceptable to my reviewer, I will attempt to answer on both fronts.
Based on extensive study of Indo-European mythologies, Georg Dumezil developed a theory in which the gods, and by extension society, were tiered by order of importance into three division. The gods falling into the highest tier filled magico-religious functions and were involved in witchcraft as well matters of justice and order. Within this stratum one finds the Norse god Odin, the Vedic gods Varuna and Mitra, and the Greek Zeus. As the questions asks specifically about the magico-religious function, we will dispense with any consideration of the justice and oath-keeping aspects of first function deities.
Mythology is full of instances of these gods, Odin, Zeus, and Varuna, performing magic to achieve their goals, (though it should be noted that Dumezil makes a big deal about third function gods using magic and witchcraft to fight the first function gods who enjoy military and physical superiority in tales of divine wars). Odin hung himself on the tree Yggdrasil and received a vision of the runes, a magical alphabet used for spell-work and, in modern times, divination.
In Vedic tradition Varuna repeatedly uses his skills with maya or trickery/illusion to reach his goals and to establish the physical forms of the universe and himself. The Celts prove a bit more tricky to fit into a Dumezilian paradigm, largely because the surviving mythology is fractured and inconsistent. However, Dumezil points to the figure of Macha from Ulster who is a three-fold figure, sometimes presented as sisters, sometimes as one goddess. In her first function capacity she is a seeress married to Nemed the Sacred (Littleton, 156).
As to the actions and position of magic-workers and priestly types within historic Indo-European society, the anecdotes are all over the map. In a Germanic
and Scandinavian context this type of work is broken into two broad types; galdr and seidh. Galdr is largely spoken spellwork while seidhr is describe by
Diana Paxson as mind-magic. The practitioners of these arts were not generally full-time magic-users, but rather learned and practiced their arts on the side for the benefit of themselves, their family, and immediate community.
Some people fulfilling a magico-religious function in their culture were a more specialized. It strikes me that those involved in prophecy were not considered
simply the farmer’s wife from next door. The Oracle at Delphi, often referred to as Pythia, was a considered to be a conduit for communication from the god Apollo. Seidkona were specialized and tended to travel from place to place practicing their arts (Paxson, 118). The Bructerian prophetess, Veleda (possibly a Celtic honorific), seems to have enjoyed a prominent position after her correct predictions about the Batavian rebellion.
References:
Contributors, Various. "Pythia." Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, 26 Oct 2013. Web. 5 Nov 13.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythia.
Contributors, Various. "Veleda." Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, 30 July 2013. Web. 5 Nov 2013.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veleda.
Littleton, Scott. "The Comparative Indo-European Mythology of George Dumezil." Journal of the Folklore Institute. Vol. 1.No. 3 (Dec. 1964): 147-166. Print.
Paxson, Diana L. Essential Asatru: Walking the Path of Norse Paganism. New York: Kensington Publishing Corp., 2006. Print.
[Introduction
to questions two and three: As different Indo-European societies developed, the
figure of the magician in those societies evolved in differing ways, for
example: in Roman society the magical function evolved, it was divided away from
the priestly function and regulated by a different set of laws while in the
evolution of Gaelic culture the magical and priestly functions remained entwined
within the same cultural functionary.]
1.
Discuss
your understanding of the evolution of the magician from early to late periods
within one Indo-European culture. (minimum 300 words)
A study of Scandinavian lore (Eddas and family sagas) shows that while the practice of magic was once the province nearly exclusively of women, over time,
men increasingly became practitioners. In part, this understanding stems from the fact that much of the lore was written by Christian monks. Examination of Old Norse poetry, laws, and family histories indicates that for some period of time in the early stage of Christian expansion clerics were allowed to perform magic while at the same time attempting to tame and control the folk practices. During the conversion process, there existed a belief among monks that the native population would draw parallels between churchmen and the respected pagan magicians. Therefore, it behooved the churchmen to increasingly change the gender of the sorcerers and magi in the traditional tales from female to male. A third way they worked to control and “domesticate” the pagan magic was by demoting from a highly prestigious practice to one that was held in contempt (Jochens, 308).
This conversion of the magician from female to male is well-documents in Jenny Jochens essay, based on her presentation to the 79th Meeting of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Studies in 1989, “Old Norse Magic and Gender: Þáttr Þorvalds ens Víðforla.” In the essay she dissects fourteen scenes of magic and/or prophecy in the tale of the adventures of Þorvaldr Koðránsson and the Saxon Bishop Friðrekr. The tale is found in the Þáttr, which in turn is to be found in the longest saga of Oláfr Tryggvason. A shortened version of the tale may also be found in the Flateyjarbók, and another, later version, in the Kristni Saga. By comparing the versions of this tale to each other and to older material Jochens demonstrates the shift of the Norse magician from a powerful female to either an incidental character or replaced entirely in the tales.
There are three principle types of magical acts in the tale; visions of the future through no means other than the seers innate abilities, magicians who must use
rituals or spells to see the future but cannot alter it, and sorcerers who can use magic to see the future and influence events. Eddic poetry and even the historian Tacitus tell us of women who have the ability to see the future and need utilize no spells or rituals to do so. The later family sagas indicate that this sort of forsjá, or foresight, is demonstrated by both men and women. In the latest of the sagas such abilities are enjoyed solely by men.
The Old Norse sources offer the majority of examples of magicians who use ritual or spellwork to view the future, though their powers do not extend to influencing or changing those future events. Using the branch of magic known as seidhr, the volur make predictions about the fate of individual people or the general well-being of a community. This type of magic is the province of goddesses, and, by extension, of women. There is mythic material indicating that Odin gained knowledge of seidhr but he is not shown as having any knowledge of the future other than what he is told by a volva.
There is no need for to paraphrase all of Jochens work here, a few examples will suffice. In support of the earlier claim that one of the ways in which the
role of the magician was consciously changed was by allowing clerics to perform magic so that the pagan populace would view them as equally as powerful as their pagan magicians, I offer the example of Koðran. After attending a Christian service he compares the bishop to his own spamaðr or “prophet.” He claims his spamaðr can tell the future, protect his cattle, and instruct his as to right behavior. A sort of competition is arranged and the Bishop sprinkles the stone which houses the spamaðr with holy water three times, driving the prophet out. The services the spamaðr provides are all part of the traditional female magical realms of influence, except for the livestock protection which is the sphere of the landvaettir (a feminine noun incidentally). It is interesting that the Bishop is set up as a replacement for the pagan prophet.
References:
Jochens, Jenny. "Old Norse Magic and Gender: Þáttr Þorvalds men's Víðforla." Scandinavian Studies. 63.3 (1991): 305-317. Print.
Compare
and contrast the culturally institutionalized position of the magician within at
least two Indo-European cultures. (minimum 300 words)
The words “magician,” and “mage” come from the Latin magus and from the older Persian magûs. In the Book of Jeremiah the retinue of King Nebuchadnezzar is detailed, including the Rab Mag, the Chief of the Magi, indicating the prominent position held by Persian Magi even in the Babylonian courts. Herodotus outlines some of the practices and skills of the Persian Magi, including weather manipulation. Godley’s edition of Herodotus (Book VII.191, vol. 3, pp. 508-509) states, “For the storm lasted for three days; and at last the Magians, by using victims {cut up in pieces and offered to the manes} and wizards’ spells on the wind, and by sacrificing also to Thetis and the Nereids, did make it to cease on the fourth day. . .” Based on this and the writings of Ilya Gershevitch, Victor Mair asserts that the Magi were technical magicians for hire to kings, nobles, and other rulers. Among their skills were dream interpretation, divination, perform astrological readings, deciphered omens, and performed sacrifices (Mair, 39). The PIE root *magh- means “to be able, to have power” indicating that the Magi possessed significant spiritual and/or occult abilities.
Ronald Hutton presents the observations of the Druids by Julius Ceasar as follows, “in Gaul there existed only two classes of respected person: druides
and equites.” In short, horsed warriors and these Druids were the respected groups. Hutton goes on to describe the activities of the Druids as including
teaching, leading worship-based prayers and chants, performing sacrifices, and divination. According to Lewis Spence the role of the Druid was a bit more
mystical. Their powers extended to necromancy, various shamanisms (shape-shifting, illusions and glamors), and forms of herbalism.
These two groups, Druids and Magi, seem to mirror each other. Each had established positions in society and fairly well demarcated spheres of
influence. I have come across little to indicate that Druids performed their services for a price however. After the conversion to Christianity,
it is my understanding that those remaining Druids became “hedge wizards” who did accept money, food, or shelter in return for their services. But my
sources for that are anecdotal at best.
References:
Hutton, Ronald. Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain. New York, NY: Yale University Press, 2009. Print.
Mair, Victor H.. "Old Sinitic "M *y* ag", Old Persian "MaguŠ", and English "Magician"." Early China Vol. 15: pp. 22-47. Web.
Spence, Lewis. The magic Arts in Celtic Britain. . Reprint. New York: Dover Publications, 1999. Print.
Identify
the terms used within one Indo-European language to identify 'magic' and
'magician' examining what these terms indicate about the position of the
magician and the practice of his or her art. (minimum 100
words)
It is generally accepted that the word that used most often for “magic” in Old Norse is fjölkyngi. The root of this word is the verb kunna meaning to know or understand (Raudvere, 88).
Old Norse has multiple words for what we would today call magicians. The Voluspa, an epic poem in which Odin asks a seeress to look into the future for him, offers us examples of one term; Volva, völva is the Icelandic cognate. In fact, the poem’s title Voluspa, can be translated as “Prophecy of the Volva.” Volva is derived from the Old Norse vǫlr, meaning wand. And volva is often translated as “wand/staff-carrier.”
We know the word seiðr was used for certain types of magic, but its Old Norse root is lost. It is somehow connected to the words for harness or halter. Old Norse also uses the term spaekona, to refer to those who are seers. This term stems from spá meaning “to see.” This is often the term applied to practitioners of oracular seiðr.
The practice of singing charms or incantations was known as galdr. The word galdr translates as “spell or incantation.” One who practiced this form of magic was either a galdrakona (female) or galdramaðr (male) (Rabinovitch & Lewis, 109).
Jenny Blain suggests that the relationship of the Seiðr-workers to their community may have been the determining factor in how they are named in the lore.
Spae-women had a positive connection to their communities while an evil Seiðworker would be called a fordaeða (Blain, 51).
Friðriksdóttir writes, “in the sagas, a person who practices magic is not automatically labeled evil, nor is the magic itself necessarily so viewed...This is not to say that there are no instances...referring to practitioners of magic in negative terms, but in those cases the attitude is made clear” (p. 410-411).
References:
Blain, Jenny. Nine Worlds of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy and Neo-Shamanism in North European Paganism. New York, NY: Routledge, 2002. Print.
Friðriksdóttir, Jóhanna Katrín. "Women's Weapons: A Re-Evaluation of Magic in the Íslendingasögur." Scandinavian Studies Vol. 81: pp. 409-436. Print.
Hollander, Lee M. The Poetic Edda. Reprint. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2011. Print.
McCoy, Dan. "Magic." Norse Mythology for Smart People, n.d. Web. 14 May 2014. http://norse-mythology.org/concepts/magic/.
Rabinovitch, Shelley, and James Lewis. The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism. New York, NY: Citadel Press, 2002. Print.
Raudvere, Catharina. ed. Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart Clark. "Trolldómr in Early Medieval Scandinavia." Witchcraft and Magic in Europe Volume 3: The Middle Ages. Print.
In
Norse culture we see magic divided into two primary methodologies known as Galdr
and Seidhr. Galdr is very much the formal magic of sound, word and poetry
meaning literally to intone while Seidhr is the magic of the spirits and is used
by the folk in their everyday lives to assist in their crafts and arts. Compare
the methodologies of spoken word magic and spirit magic and discuss their
cultural significance within at least one Indo-European culture. (minimum 300
words)
I would love to know who came up with the above categories. Ah, if only the authors of these questions had to cite their sources as assiduously as do the
students answering them. I do not agree that spoken and spirit magic are starkly separated in Norse magical traditions. Rather one could examine
the two parts of magic that are represented in Norse lore; the ritual act and magical spell as identified by Gísli Pálsson. But I will attempt to focus on the interplay of spoken and “spirit” magic.
In the Saga of Erik the Red (Eiríks saga rauða) we have one of the most detailed descriptions of a Spae-kona performing seiðr. ðorkell, a seeress, is invited into the hall and presented with an elaborate feast. Before she can begin her magic seeing, she requires a woman to sing a particular spell-song. Once the song is sung (by a reluctant Christian woman no less), “The spae-queen thanked her for the song. ‘Many spirits,’ said she, ‘have been present under its charm, and were pleased to listen to the song, who before would turn away from us, and grant us no such homage. And now are many things clear to me which before were hidden both from me and others.’ ” This excerpt from the Saga was integral to the reconstruction of oracular seiðr by Hrafnar Kindred members Diana Paxson and Laurel Mendes (Mendes interview). Here the spirit magic is tied to the spoken word magic, they are dependant upon one another.
However, I will agree that there is a rich tradition of verbal charms with the Norse context. In the Havamal Odin boasts that he knows 18 magical galdrs or chants/charms. In fact the use of songs, chants, and curses is well documented, though the actual content of these spoken charms is rarely shared.
Likewise, the actual acts or movements involved in the magic are hardly ever described in the lore (Friðriksdóttir, 421).
There are instances of silent touching in the Sagas. This touching was used as a way to determine if someone would be much hurt in battle. We see this is Kormác’s Saga when Helga’s nurse inspects Ogmund and touches him, then pronounces that he will not be hurt, much. Nevertheless, I would say that
breaking Norse magic into galdr and seiðr, into spoken and spirit, indicates an incomplete understanding of the lore.
Resources:
Friðriksdóttir, Jóhanna Katrín. "Women's Weapons: A Re-Evaluation of Magic in the Íslendingasögur." Scandinavian Studies Vol. 81: pp. 409-436. Print.
Mendes, Laurel. Personal Interview. 9 May 2014.
"The Saga of Erik the Red." Icelandic Saga Database. N.p.. Web. 14 May 2014. http://sagadb.org/eiriks_saga_rauda.en.
Discuss the existence and relative function of trance-journey magic within at least one Indo-European culture. (minimum 100 words)
Jenny Blain, in her work Nine Worlds of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy and Neo-Shamanism in North European
Paganism, defines trance as “ecstasy attained through otherworldly experience,’ (Blain, 49). She sees trance-related shamanistic practices as being intricately connected to the larger socio-political culture. The trance activities of Seiðworkers are supported by and performed on behalf of the entire community. However, in Old Norse society, the practices of Seiðworkers do not appear to have been supported by the community as a whole. The sagas reflect a range of time during which many things changed socially, politically, and religiously.
There exist several examples of Seiðworkers throughout the lore. Hrolfs Saga describes the seeress Heið who was esteemed and feasted by King Frodi before
being asked to prophesy. Þórdís was a spae-woman appearing in both Kormáks Saga and in the Vatnsdaela Saga. She was held in such esteem that the hill behind her house was named for her and her arts.
References:
Blain, Jenny. Nine Worlds of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy and Neo-Shamanism in North European Paganism. New York, NY: Routledge, 2002. Print.
Discuss the place of alphabetic symbolism (runes, Ogham, Greek letters, etc) as part of the symbolism of magical practice within one Indo-European culture examine how this alphabet may or may not relate to the earlier sound, word and poetic magical methodologies. (minimum 300 words)
Odin hung from the tree for nine days and nine nights, pierced, starving, and parched. The runes appeared to him and he grabbed them up then fell,
screaming, from the tree. He shared the runes, some to the elves, some to the dwarves, some to the gods, and some to mankind.
We know from inscription on boundary posts and other archeaological finds that the runic alphabet was used for everyday inscription use. Runestones have been found marking graves (like the Norwegian Bø Runestone which bears the simple inscription, “Hnabud’s Grave”), to identify craftsman shift ( ie: Norwegian By Flagstone, “I, the iril. Hror, son of Hror, made this flagstone”), or simply to state one’s presence as on the oldest know runestone, the Einang Runestone in Valdres which is translated as saying, “I Gudgæst wrote the rune.”
We also know that runic inscriptions could have been intended as magical charms, curse, or protections. One common use of runes was on bracteates, worn as amulets. One bracteate found in Bjørnerud has the brief inscription, “alu” which is generally considered a magical incantation for protection.
Egil’s Saga offers an example of the use of runes in cursing. Egil, holding a níðstang (scorn-pole), speaks aloud his curse upon Eric and Gunnhilda and the spirits of the land they rule. Before departing, Egil then carves the curse in runes on the pole. Whether the magic was in the physical presence of the runes on the pole or in the the words spoken by Egil is unclear. What is clear is that runes played a part in that piece of sorcery.
The Icelandic rune poems offer a great deal of insight into the use of individual runes in magical, spiritual, or contemplative way--uses beyond written
communication. Each rune poem consists of a sentence about one of the sixteen runes followed by three phrases, or kennings, about the nature of the
rune.
References:
"Egil's Saga." Icelandic Saga Database. N.p., Web. 15 May 2014. <http://sagadb.org/egils_saga.en
Hauge, Arild. "Norwegian Runic Inscriptions." Arild Hauge's Runes . N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May 2014. <http://www.arild-hauge.com/einscription.htm>.
Page, R. I. The Icelandic Rune Poem. London: University of Nottingham, 199. Web. <http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/The Icelandic Rune-Poem.pdf>.
- Discuss three key magical techniques or symbols from one Indo-European culture. (minimum 100 words each)
níðstang:
A cursing pole, also sometimes translated as a “scorn-pole”. We read a detailed description of a níðstang in Egil’s saga. Egil takes a hazel-pole and places on top of it a horse head. Then he speaks his curse of king Eric and queen Gunnhilda and turns the horse head to face inland. The Egil addresses the land spirits, cursing them to wander aimlessly until they turn against and drive out the King and Queen. After he has spoken his curse, he carves runes into the pole.
We see the níðstang again in Vatnsdæla Saga. In that instance Jökul uses a human head instead of a horse’s head and curses Finbogi who shied away from a fight.
References:
"Egil's Saga." Icelandic Saga Database. N.p., Web. 15 May 2014. <http://sagadb.org/egils_saga.en
"Vatnsdæla
Saga." Icelandic
Saga Database.
N.p.. Web. 15 May 2014. <http://sagadb.org/vatnsdaela_saga>
Ægishjálmr:
A symbol used to strike fear into enemies and for protection. It is loosely translated as “Helm of Awe” or “Helm of Terror.” In The Saga of
the Volsungs (chapter 18), Fafnir claims that he held up the Ægishjálmr and was thus made unbeatable in battle saying “A countenance of terror I bore up before all folk, after that I brooded over the heritage of my brother, and on every side did I spout out poison, so that none durst come anigh me, and of no weapon was I adrad, nor ever had I so many men before me, as that I deemed myself not stronger than all; for all men were sore afeard of me.”
The Helm of Awe is essentially eight elhaz runes positioned together in a wheel, connected at their bases. Because the symbol is described as a helm, it has often been assumed that it was inscribed onto a helmet of some sort. Even Wanger, in his opera, made use of the idea of a magical helmet that made the wearer invisible and invincible.
References:
Morris, William, and Eirikr Magnusson. The Saga of the Volsungs: with Excerpts from the Poetic Edda. London: Walter Scott Press, 1888. Print.
Oracular Seiðr:
This is a practice that has been reconstructed in modern times. The most reputable practitioners are those who belonged to Hrafnar Kindred in California and their efforts were led by Diana Paxson and Laurel Mendes, among others. There are other practitioners of oracular seiðr, though their methods and attitudes are suspect, in my opinion.
Oracular seiðr is a technique that brings information from the Otherworld to listeners and querents in this world. The Seiðkona leads the assembled group in a trance journey to the Gates of Hela’s Hall. Once there she enters and communes with the spirits of the blessed dead, certain gods and goddesses, and sometimes other tribes of spirits. The assembled group are allowed to ask questions and the answers of the dead, gods,
and spirits are communicated by the Seiðkona to the listening group. - Discuss the relative place and methodologies of magic within your personal religious/spiritual practice. (minimum 100 words)
I am not much of a magic-worker. It has never figured heavily in my personal practice and I don’t consider it to be an important aspect of Indo-European
religion. However, as Pagans in the modern world I suppose we are expected to know a bit about magic.
When I am called upon for magical workings, which happens more than I would like, they are usually of a predictable sort; physical health and prosperity spells. However, I have led my Grove in a few more substantial workings. When I do perform any sort of magic is almost always some sort of theurgy.
I call upon the God or Kindred who seems the most appropriate, state my desire, and make offerings.
I suppose one could argue that outside of formal ADF rituals I practice a form of galdr. I recite/chant charms for various garden tasks; turning the
compost, preparing a new bed, planting bulbs,wassailing my fruit trees, and separate chants for seasonal prunings. I also charm stones to place at the
base of new planting, a galdr practice I learned from the renown seiðkona Laurel Mendes.
Into which basic categories would you divide magical arts and how do you see those categories functioning within the context of ADF? (minimum 300
words)
My experience in ADF is long and varied. over the years I have come to make certain distinctions between magical practices. I would break the magical
arts into the following categories: Divination, Spell Work, Priestly Magic.
Divination:
According to Merriam-Webster is, “the art or practice that seeks to foresee or foretell future events or discover hidden knowledge usually by the
interpretation of omens or by the aid of supernatural powers.” So it is in ADF. Every ritual has a time when the celebrants ask for the input of or
message from the Kindreds. There are many ways to accomplish this, but the most common is that one celebrant, the Seer, takes an omen, often using some sort of divinatory tool. The Seer then declares that the Kindreds have or have not accepted the offerings and/or the nature of blessing or wisdom the Kindreds offer in return for the offerings.
Within ADF we have a Seers Guild whose mission, as stated on their page on the ADF website is, “The ADF Seers Guild is committed to serving the ADF community by providing a highly trained resource for divination, trancework, and pastoral counseling through its members.”
I know there is a small group within the ADF Clergy who have begun to study seiðr. I happened upon them at the 2013 Wellspring Festival in the nemeton
performing a rite together. Their goal seemed to be one of information-gathering from the Otherworld. I would class this as divinatory-related magic work. Into this category I would also place the regular Mound journeys of the Clergy Council and the Council’s attempts to work with the Ancient Wise and Silver Court.
Spell Work:
Return Flow for magical work to be done. Spells for healing or prosperity or fertility occur here. In the Spring this is the portion of the ritual during which the Sacred Marriage is performed. For couples seeking to be wed, this is where the marriage ceremony would fall. Most commonly the Senior Druid or ritual leader will perform the magical working.
It recently occurred to me while reading Giordano Bruno’s On Bonding in a General Sense that to my mind, spell work is that work aimed at influencing human
beings--their actions, desires, or perceptions.
Priestly magic:
This category may exist only in my head. It is here that I would place acts such as Opening the Gates or Hallowing the Waters in ritual. I would also define child or house blessings as Priestly magic. Any act that is calling on the Kindreds to perform an act, whether of blessing or purification or other intent, is part of priestly magic. It could be argued that marriage ceremonies fall into this category and I would not dispute that. I believe there is a thin, blurry line between spell work and priestly magic, but I do believe it exists.
To continue my thoughts inspired by Bruno, I class priestly magic as that work which influences the spirits; weather magic, blessing work, animal and totemic
work, etc.
References:
"Divination." Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, n.d. Web. 12 May 2014. <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/divination>.
"Seers Guild Bylaws." Ár nDraíocht Féin: A Druid Fellowship, Inc., n.d. Web. 13 May 2014. https://www.adf.org/members/guilds/seers/bylaws.html.